The Making and Unmaking of a Megaproject: Contesting Temporalities along the LAPSSET Corridor in Kenya

In this paper, we show how communities in Northern Kenya proactively engage an unfolding megaproject and the temporalities it evokes—the Lamu Port South Sudan Ethiopia Transport Corridor (LAPSSET). We argue that latitude have contending with megaprojects is broader more dynamic than passive reception of or outright resistance against futures promised. By introducing concepts entangling fraying, emphasise agency create for themselves by appreciating their strategies expressions stabilising troubling “megaproject”. While refers to practices through which attach additional features otherwise rather stable vision its “meganess”, contrast, describes strands splice off towards different spatio-temporal imaginaries. discuss these four instances engaging LAPSSET: constructing temporary homes at project sites; land reform; disputing acquisition oil exploration contesting a planned resort city. Kwenye jarida hili, tunaonyesha jinsi jamii kaskazini mwa wanajihusisha na mradi wa muundo msingi unaojulikana kama Tunaonesha kuwa uhusiano kati ya miradi miundo ufanyika kwa njia mingi sio tu ati hao huikubali ama huipinga. Tukitumia dhana mbili amabazo ni kujihusisha kukabiliana huwa ushawishi mkubwa uwezo kutumia mbinu tofauti ambazo zinaweza kustahimilisha kuvuruga huo. Katika kujihusisha, tunaangazia jamiii huambatanisha matakwa yao mipango maalum ambayo hutarajiwa kutoka “kubwa” msingi. Dhana nayo inaashiria maoni haziambatani fikira za wapangaji miradi. Tunafanya hivi kuzungumzia matukio nne LAPSSET. Matukio haya ujenzi makaazi yanayodumu muda mfupi kwenye maeneo mradi; mikakati kusajili ardhi yao; pingamizi kuchukulia mafuta; juu ujezi mji mpya mapumziko. This article contributes burgeoning literature on infrastructural exploring across unsettling The question, “what makes megaproject?”, has been investigated from plurality positions: discussed connection risk (Flyvbjerg et al. 2003; see also World Bank 2019); future-making (Müller-Mahn 2020); capitalist expansionism (Kanai 2016; Zhang 2017); colonial legacies (Aalders 2020; Enns Bersaglio Kimari Ernstson peace- state-building (Bachmann Schouten 2018; Stepputat Hagmann 2019; Uribe reconfiguration state spaces (Demissie 2017; Mayer Ong 2003), name but few. addition, critical scholarship pointed constellations capital interests drive current rush large infrastructure projects global South, addition exposed severe forms exclusion dispossession they produce (Li Tsing 2017). taking inspiration important interventions, aim complementing views two respects. First, geography tends regard as top-down ventures; something inscribed into landscapes biography people, centrally assumedly powerful often unspecified “agents circulation”, (2019:794) put it. However, informed Science Technology Studies (STS) demonstrated, requires sustained work multitude actors align interests, imaginaries material components mould them (Latour 1996). Second, seek expand common view affected social groups limited capacity well ventures. participation rural populations internationally financed steered may be limited, demonstrate that, particularly contexts where planners' aligning visions not yet fully succeeded, there substantial leeway ways necessarily intended planners. focus “expulsion-resistance” (Borras Franco 2013) only unable cognise multiple cleavages society fails identify wide-ranging registers draw encounters grand (cf. Hall 2015; Lind Scott 1985). accentuating evoke aspirations even open up new political collectivity (Appel Chome Collier Harvey Knox 2015), way people promises, manifestations inadvertently latter’s consolidation destabilisation. Taking our theoretical cues STS, anthropology geography, introduce fraying order carve out dynamics engagement. entangling, refer contribute mega-project alignment attaching supposedly unalterable set visions. With hope make visible unruly centrifugal forces threaten unsettle key elements corridor pointing alternative example Port-South Sudan-Ethiopia (LAPSSET) pastoralist Kenya, some along augment “megaproject”, while others render trajectory brittle. start brief discussion existing situate LAPSSET Corridor, before argument “making” hard work, terms construction concrete infrastructures coherently “futures”. then categories relation power specific temporalities, followed episodes centring contestations related land, all illustrate faces challenges entanglement—building “manyattas” (traditional settlement) sites Isiolo reform Turkana—and fraying—contesting Turkana (see Figure 1 geographical reference). paper’s main conclusion encountering such share experience invisibility exclusion, take active differentiated roles navigating shaping complex landscape spatial temporal body will concerned locally consolidated challenged, first give overview define understand general particular. Governments uneven insufficient connectivity one primary impediments economic development, including fairer distribution opportunity welfare. No wonder are commonly branded vehicles change; signal prowess, transformation. Annual spending “emerging economies” last decade exceeded $2 trillion. five years between 2004 2008, China spent entire 20th century; most went can safely considered “big”: dams, highway railway networks, ports urban development schemes 2014). number scope both envisioned realised African continent extraordinary outshine earlier modernist transcontinental (AfDB Herz Vhumbunu 2016). Central connecting Tanzania Uganda Great Lakes region, Southern Agricultural Growth Tanzania, Gibe III dam Standard Gauge Railway few join list ongoing—and contested—megaprojects East Africa (Chome Mosley Watson Wang Wissenbach Wiig Silver 2019). Despite being analytically elusive, term gained considerable traction, primarily within business management studies. what probably parsimonious definition, Bent Flyvbjerg (2014:6) considers signify “large-scale ventures typically cost $1 billion more, many develop build, involve public private stakeholders, transformational affect millions people”. would add, tightly governments hinge upon accessing international capital. Measured indicators, formidable megaproject. Clearly “Game-Changer” (LCDA 2017:iii) project, investors planners land-locked countries Indian Ocean integrating vast historically marginalised parts fold Kenyan state. It includes 32 berth port Lamu, approximately 2000 km highways roads; crude product pipelines; interregional standard gauge lines; airports cities counties; multipurpose river Tana; supporting, associated electric supply, survey acquisition, environmental assessments, security installations corridor). Furthermore, area industrial investments extend 50 each side 500 m wide corridor. From beginning, “in search rationale” (Browne 2015:5). idea second deep-water old, did gain traction until 2005, when post-war southern was looking outlet projected exports. Simultaneously, Ethiopian government showed interest transport Ocean. soon after ostentatious launch 2012, reached agreement exportation Khartoum sliding civil war 2013. potential substitute, Uganda, opting another export route, shrivelled. conveyance remained pivotal economy thanks discovery North-Western Kenya. frames regional transportation trade link, instrumental country’s industrialisation policy.1 contrast other Africa, emphasizing contribution transformation arid semi-arid lands leveraging economies, recent (RoK Due lack commitment foreign however, forced cover lion’s investment costs multi-billion dollar (Kabukuru 2016).2 2 government’s ambitious caused stir. Having borrowed nearly $10 2006 2017 China, ventures, become Africa’s third largest recipient Chinese loans (Deutsche Welle weaving hitherto peripheral centre relations, therefore prime conduits enclosure (Enns Lesutis 1998). What authorities means valorisation resources augmenting gaze state, spells distinct population (Harvey Kanai zeroing entail much-needed intervention, need careful implemented full discretion Instead, “success” contingent solving controversies conflicting expertise, actor frictions scholars STS long argued (Callon 1984; Latour 1999). practice, knowledge about feasibility, terrain, glitches assuring interoperability components, expressed courts streets, examples, constitute strong intervening unravel alter Hence, retain uncompromised notion “coherence”, workers must conjure un-breakability “illusion ‘friction-free’” mobility flows (Sheller 2018). So far, LAPSSET’s coherence appears promises formulated: boardrooms, forums, websites, meetings. here loosely affiliated assembled “single unitary package” (Salet 2013:1985). And legal procedures, technical standards stakeholders’ fitted narrative game-changing promised radically transform conditions. fact, lays ensure effective exists so far planning documents, impact assessments maps. LCDA (LAPSSET Development Authority) published several maps drawn almost exaggerated bold confident lines. Such boldness confidence do however hide inherent fickleness controversial nature corridor’s subject disruption range forces, forming publics court decisions. directed managing contradictions—not plans unstable alliances, movements expected enabled hindered project’s “meganess” remains aligned presentations, maps, reports occluding fact frictionless some, others, pastoral communities, excluded ability facilitate physical movement space, consequently promise modernity. acknowledging dimension assiduous efforts, propose good deal conjuring else: creates, encounters, modifies. One aspect frequently overlooked outside try capture focusing mobilise, own aspirations, hopes, fears memories megaprojects. context concept does anticipated futures, importantly past (Appadurai 2013:288). A connect drill Lokichar connects particular defined marginalisation, division destitution (for elaborated account historical post-independence marginalisation northern example, Jabane Kochore 2016) future seamless connectivity, unity, production 2020). nourishing “fantasy rationality beginnings” (Bach 2011:100), point present, marked alleviation hardship, increased opportunities. tied redress injustice condition preserved light radical changes bring 2012). perspectives crucial megaproject, those processes met who encounter ground. An emphasis aspirational nuanced description mobilise interaction Scholars wider theory conceive human imagining “good life”—as eliciting realise such—as universal practice 2013; Jasanoff 2014; Müller-Mahn At same time, “capacity aspire” anything distributed evenly society. privileged routinised packaging ambitions layers justification, embedding wants norms and, able shortcuts aspiration outcome. For marginalised, instead, “present itself luxury, nightmare, doubt shrinking possibility” 2013:299; Appadurai 2013:186–188). kind temporality produces—that is, points at—is highly contested unequal struggle. telling difficulties involved provided ceremony occasion Kenya’s Oil Shipment Flag-off (Project Meant performance joint celebration dream becoming oil-producing country, speeches anticipation context. Turkana’s deputy governor Peter Lotethiro stressed “alignment” now finally (after decades marginalisation) felt like were “part Kenya” He added his county demanded small part profits, “only goat’s leg” (goat popular local food). image referenced subsequent during ceremony: neighbouring County West Pokot “are waiting just ribs [of goat]” (ibid.); chief executive Tullow Oil, Paul McDade, “having billion, venture partners get bit goat” (Akwiri coming together shared future, time ripping “the apart cooked, suggestive: mainly success parties project. Based acknowledgement “hard work” accounted above, shift attention manage (often powerful) ambition 2003). section, principal Corridor: temporalities. facing alignments too successful consolidate mentioned information brochures official break entangled pertinent extremely comprehensive modernity mobilised contextualise justify Corridor. If ultimately “Infinite possibilities. Endless opportunities”, website proclaims 2020), becomes difficult thing belong chose call exceed original intentions entangling. broadly inquiry specifically zero practical engagement add lines dominant doing so, de facto “external” cohesive package. difference described above relations respective done elite, form centralised authority, entanglement happens authority impress onto feel allegedly produced insert vision. Unlike alignment, stabilise use accordance near distant future. cohesiveness troubled attempts plans, fragmentation disruption—a fraying. Infrastructures furthermore mired fixity allow smooth flow stable, pauses immobilities (Hannam 2006). tenuous provides opening settling intervene at, leads to, trajectories ones laid vision, rejection separation latter. having family resemblance everyday 1985), diverging following disintegrate articulate pasts futures. As remainder paper demonstrate, roads attempting pave appropriated challenged politicians, elites live corridors variegated ways. much looks marginal ordinary, translate tangible improvement, nonetheless expression collective desirable diverge challenge master forward government. Thought way, interventions embellish canvas personal (Jasanoff 2014:5–10). bringing empirical seem expansive south Sahara, groups, gradually “change recognition” 2013:293). base mixed-method, qualitative research conducted person authors 2016 2019, separate thematically studies: “walking ethnography” (Ingold Vergunst 2008) total three months (one nodes) (the focal exploitation) carried Aalders; 30 semi-structured in-depth interviews representatives broad non-governmental organisations (NGOs), (CSOs), community-based (CBOs) counties Knutsson Kilaka; individual group performed Kilaka, targeting sections based around Turkana; content analysis LAPSSET-relevant judicial reports, national media majority native language respondents (Turkana, Borana Samburu, depending site research) assistance assistants, smaller (notably governments, CSOs NGOs) Kiswahili English. You know, compensated you demarcation everybody comes there, go is. People-- manyattas [traditional settlement]. People line wait compensation. (Interview, 26 January 2018) “temporary manyattas” recognise emptiness vocabulary all-inclusive imaginary attempt fill owners’ dreams hopes: using compensation send one’s children school; buy motorbike; cows; medicine. Far block LAPSSET, architects hitch ride them. braid appear modest, contestation counter-structures express very mega-ness builds upon. Manyattas illustrates aspire “local communities”. owning businesses larger settlements corridor, and/or living sedentary life permanent stone buildings registered title deed, naturally spelled LCDA. mean position passively embracing plans. appropriate hopes anticipations Providing rationale Ireland-based company since 2012 found wells Basin County, located communal held trust behalf community. Land exploitation leased Similarly case fear end dispossessed indispensable grazing without adequately similar cases corporate enclosures, Gingembre 2015). instead spontaneous acts claiming rights financial compensation, elected leaders community (holding customary hosts wells), supported known NGO, took advantage provisions entailed recently introduced Community Act obtain revenues exploitation. act novel, register designated “trust land” titles proof ownership. When became operational had already made necessary preparations managed file application registration office Nairobi. To date, community’s approved. According representatives, reason inability afford unrealistically high required completed. Before came value land. noticed if could cautious. They used legislators etc. excluded. There claimed represent asked told us t